This year marks an important year for Africa’s newest country to transition to peace. Since the official end of the civil war in 2020, a transitional government has been responsible for setting the country’s first general elections, which are slated for December 2024.¹ However, unresolved challenges of intercommunal violence and political instability remain, which are compounded by climate change and food insecurity.² The country has also been affected by the outbreak of conflict in neighbouring Sudan in April 2023. The Sudanese conflict has prompted 399 000 South Sudanese refugees to return to South Sudan from Sudan to escape escalating violence in the region. The South Sudanese displacement crisis remains one of the continent’s most significant, with 2.2 million refugees having left the country and a further 2.2 million Internally Displaced People.³

Nonetheless, South Sudan is witnessing notable advancements in its housing and infrastructure sectors. This reflects broader efforts by the government and its partners to stabilise and modernise the nation in order to spur development and encourage foreign direct investment. One major development is the “Lologo/Juba Water Supply Project” funded by the German Government through the German Development Bank (KfW).⁴ This initiative aims to provide clean water to approximately 100 000 residents in the Juba camp for Internally Displaced Peoples (IDPs) and surrounding vulnerable communities. Reliable access to water is a crucial foundation for investment into formal housing and overall community well-being.

Another notable project is the construction of the “Investment Tower” in Juba, commissioned by South Sudan’s Ministry of Investment and undertaken by the Malaysian firm Bsmart.⁵ This tower will house the ministry’s headquarters whilst also provide accommodation for investors to the country. This development highlights South Sudan’s commitment to fostering a favourable environment for investment, which is expected to spur growth in the real estate sector and attract international business interests.

The Bank of South Sudan’s Governor, James Alic Garang, has also actively encouraged Kenyan investors to consider South Sudan’s property market.⁶ Despite past political and economic instability, there are growing opportunities for investment, particularly in real estate, which is poised for substantial returns. The government is prioritising affordable housing as a central element of its development agenda, aiming to address the needs of a growing population and support economic recovery.

In tandem with these efforts, the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) is working on extensive infrastructure projects, including the repair of over 2 000 kilometres of roads across the country.⁷ Improved infrastructure is vital for facilitating better access to housing and boosting economic activities, which in turn supports urban development and peacebuilding efforts.

The South Sudan Land Commission has recently launched a land registry in Juba to streamline property documentation and reduce land-related conflicts.⁸ This move, part of a broader reform agenda, is designed to enhance land management and support sustainable urban development. By establishing an independent body for land registration, South Sudan is working towards more secure property rights and a more stable housing market.

In South Sudan, a novel approach to construction is gaining momentum through the use of upcycled plastic bottles. With the country lacking recycling facilities, these bottles are being repurposed as bricks by filling them with soil. This method, championed by climate scientist Shazneen Cyrus Gazdar from the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) has led to the creation of various structures, including schools and houses. The durability of plastic makes these bricks a robust alternative, capable of withstanding harsh conditions like tropical storms and minor earthquakes.

In addition to environmental benefits, this approach contributes to job creation for local women and youth. The initiative is also linked to broader efforts such as community clean-up campaigns organised by UNMISS, inspired by Rwanda’s umuganda. These events not only reduce plastic waste but also foster environmental stewardship.

The construction projects help reduce greenhouse gas emissions by minimising the use of traditional bricks and cement. Future plans include building waste collection points and a Women’s Centre for Excellence for South Sudan Border Security Police, further leveraging this sustainable construction method to address local needs.

For more information: https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/02/1146592

A house in built with plastic bottle bricks in South Sudan. Source: Andrew Ugalla,
https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/02/1146592

South Sudan is Africa’s youngest country, after secession from Sudan in 2011. The country faced 7 years of civil war from 2013 to 2020 and is currently undergoing efforts to transition to peace. Of a total population of 11.1 million,⁹ 25% reside in urban areas, or 2.2 million in 2022.¹⁰ The capital city, Juba, stands out as one of Africa’s fastest-growing urban centres. This urbanisation surge is driven by a confluence of factors, including the push factors of food insecurity (37.8%), conflicts (34.4%), and climate-induced natural disasters (27.8%).¹¹ Ongoing conflicts in the country, especially in regions such as Upper Nile, southern Central Equatoria, and southern Unity, have led to significant internal displacements, further fuelling the urban influx. This has put pressure on urban and peri-urban areas as cities like Juba have expanded into surrounding community lands.¹²

The South Sudanese economy has grappled with significant economic setbacks in recent years. The real gross domestic product (GDP) contracted by an estimated 0.4% during 2022/23,¹³ largely attributed to a decline in oil production. This drop resulted from the war in neighbouring Sudan and South Sudan’s dependency on Sudanese oil pipes for oil production.¹⁴ This was further compounded by damaging effects of floods on several oilfields. Agriculture was also adversely affected by floods and droughts, exacerbating economic challenges.

Amid these difficulties, attempts were made to stabilise the economy. Inflation, which rose to 43.5% in 2020/21,¹⁵ was managed down to an estimated 0.9% in 2021/22.¹⁶ However, persistent inflationary pressures were evident, with the inflation rate once again soaring to 54.8% in 2024 according to the International Monteray Fund and other estimates varying considerably.¹⁷ The depreciation of the South Sudanese pound in 2023 and 2024 further contributed to the contraction of the GDP. The weakening of the currency, and the resultant inflation has had adverse effects on the cost of imported building materials in the country, making housing construction more expensive.¹⁸

The economic trajectory of South Sudan presents a blend of challenges and prospects. A contraction of 5% in GDP in 2023/24 is anticipated, followed by a recovery to 1% growth in 2024/25.¹⁹ Efforts to curtail current account deficits yielded results through expenditure reductions, which limit the government’s ability to invest in affordable housing programmes. Nonetheless, notable domestic risks persist, encompassing inadequate infrastructure, political instability, regional conflicts, macroeconomic imbalances, and the amplified impacts of climate change. However, a significant challenge lies in securing the necessary finances to advance climate-resilient and sustainable growth. South Sudan’s pursuit of climate and green growth ambitions requires an estimated annual financing of SS£1 294 billion (US$9.94 billion) from 2020 to 2030.²⁰ Overcoming obstacles in the private sector, including limited infrastructure, skills shortages, and access to capital, necessitates collaboration between public and private entities, which all have a direct impact on the availability of affordable housing. South Sudan’s endowment of natural resources, including oil, minerals, forests, water resources, land, and biodiversity, provides avenues for economic advancement. However, their exploitation must be managed sustainably to avert resource depletion and environmental degradation.

The Central Bank of South Sudan, known as the Bank of South Sudan, holds the mandate to oversee and regulate the country’s banking services.²¹ Despite this regulatory framework, the accessibility of formal financial services remains limited for a majority of the population. The country’s banking sector comprises 33 banks, including national, foreign, and joint-venture banks, with a combined total of 89 branches across the nation.²² However, these institutions face significant challenges due to ongoing civil conflicts, high inflation rates, and currency volatility. These factors contribute to banks’ reluctance to extend loans and credit, as the lack of adequate legal safeguards and identification processes heightens the risk associated with lending.²³

South Sudan has limited access to capital and the high lending rates present significant barriers to financial inclusion and access to housing. The financial landscape in the country is characterised by restricted access to formal financial services and limited banking services outside the capital, Juba. Less than 6% of the population has access to these services, resulting in a largely unbanked population,²⁴ and this is exacerbated by high lending rates. Foreign investors face particular challenges when seeking credit within the local market. The scarcity of hard currency, inadequate financial reporting mechanisms, lack of a credit reference bureau, and the absence of proper land ownership documentation all contribute to the difficulty of obtaining credit.²⁵ These issues deter banks from engaging with foreign investors, thus limiting investment opportunities.

Access to mortgages in South Sudan is equally restricted. Only two banks, namely Kenya Commercial Bank (KCB) and Equity Bank of Kenya, offer mortgage services. Equity Bank’s mortgage offerings, initially targeted towards the diaspora, have been discontinued.²⁶ KCB, on the other hand, provides a range of mortgage options, from financing for already-built homes to land purchases, self-building projects, and investment property financing. The financing ranges from 60% for commercial loans to 80% for built home loans on 20 year payment periods.²⁷ KCB also offers a Special Staff Scheme Loan with more generous conditions of a 100% home financing, at a rate as low as 4% and up to 25 years to pay and is exclusive to staff members of organisations with a partnership with KCB.²⁸ Microfinance institutions (MFIs) are essential in expanding access to financial services, particularly in underserved regions. In South Sudan, three primary MFIs – BRACSS, SUMI, and Finance Sudan Limited (FSL) – operate in the greater Juba region.²⁹ However, their reach remains limited, serving only 5% of clients in the area and less than 1% of the potential market in the entire country. An absence of a comprehensive regulatory framework for the microfinance sector leaves the industry largely self- regulated and veiled in opacity.³⁰

Property affordability in South Sudan is a significant challenge, particularly in urban centres, where data on property ownership versus rental is scarce. The rapid urbanisation process in cities like Juba is often ad-hoc and unregulated, with the proliferation of informal settlements suggesting a lack of affordable housing options.³¹ Limited access to formal credit further exacerbates the difficulty of borrowing money to purchase a home. South Sudan’s rapid population growth places immense pressure on the housing market, with a population that often struggles to find stable employment, as evidenced by a 13% unemployment rate in 2022.³²

The economic landscape also adds to the complexity of property affordability in South Sudan. With a Gini Index of 44.1 in 2016, income inequality is pronounced, and a vast portion of the population lives in poverty, with 63.7% living below the national poverty line.³³ Informal employment dominates the job market, with estimates suggesting that more than 76% of South Sudanese work in the low productivity, no-wage sector of the economy.³⁴ Many urban residents are caught in a cycle of subsistence farming and cattle herding, often producing just enough to feed their extended families. In this context, the World Food Programme reports that over 40% of households allocate more than 65% of their income to food expenses, leaving little room for property ownership aspirations.³⁵

In terms of property costs, typical land prices in urban areas stand at SS£26 260 (US$202) per square metre, while the cost of the cheapest newly-built housing unit by private developers is approximately SS£2.6 million (US$20 000).³⁶ Monthly rentals in the main urban centres are approximately SS£26 260 (US$202) per month.³⁷ It is essential to note that these prices place property ownership beyond the financial reach of most South Sudanese citizens, contributing to the prevalence of rental housing.

Another complicating factor is the inconsistency in building material prices due to high inflation rates, which have been exacerbated by the importation of construction materials from neighbouring countries.³⁸ These volatile prices make construction and property development projects financially unpredictable and can further deter individuals from pursuing property ownership.

The housing supply situation in South Sudan faces significant challenges and the country has been battling a severe lack of adequate housing, particularly in urban areas like Juba where 94% of the urban population lived in slums in 2016.³⁹ This shortage is partly due to the limited presence of property developers in the country, leading many individuals to opt for self-built homes which often proves to be more affordable. Typical land parcel sizes in the city of Juba range from 20m x 15m to 25m x 25m, reflecting the prevailing land parcel classifications.⁴⁰ Approximately 90% of homes in South Sudan are grass-thatched mud huts.⁴¹ Basic infrastructure services are also lacking, with only 38% of urban households having access to potable water, 15% to improved sanitation, and 22% to electricity.⁴²

Imported building materials dominate the construction sector, further escalating the cost of building and making affordable housing provision a challenge. Lengthy building approval procedures and associated administrative fees add to the overall building costs and create barriers to housing development.⁴³ However, there are efforts to address the housing crisis in the country. The South Sudan People’s Defence Forces, in partnership with Shelter Afrique, a pan-African housing development financier, aims to develop affordable housing in Juba through a public private partnership special purpose vehicle. This ambitious project intends to create 26 000 housing units for the South Sudan People’s Defence Forces, with an estimated cost of SS£195.39 billion (US$1.5 billion).⁴⁴ Shelter Afrique will provide catalytic funding and play a role in securing additional financing through collaboration with other developmental financial institutions. This initiative is a significant step towards addressing the critical housing supply challenges in South Sudan’s urban areas, though comprehensive solutions are still needed to ensure access to safe and affordable housing for the broader population.⁴⁵

The property market in South Sudan faces significant challenges stemming from structural and administrative flaws, which have contributed to the unaffordability of homes. Lengthy approval procedures and administrative fees significantly raise building costs, making it difficult for many to enter the housing market. Private developments, for instance, are required to remit 8.5% of their project costs to acquire building permits, a process that takes a staggering 131 days.46 Further- more, investors must endure a 48-day waiting period and pay an additional 14.6% of the property’s value to register a property.47 The property registration process also demands confirmation of land ownership by a survey engineer with the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning, and Environment, which, although free, adds at least a week to the overall timeline.48

South Sudan’s property market faces multifaceted challenges, including bureaucratic hurdles, unclear land ownership, and the potential for violence during land disputes. These issues not only make housing unaffordable for many but also pose significant risks to property development projects. Addressing these challenges and improving the regulatory framework for property ownership and development will be essential to fostering a more stable and accessible property market in the country.

Housing and land policy in South Sudan faces substantial challenges, primarily attributed to a lack of clear enforcement mechanisms, limited awareness of existing legislation, and limited transparent procedures. Urban land management is predominantly a state-level responsibility, despite being considered a concurrent competence shared between state and national governments. Notably, there’s a lack of enforcement mechanisms at the community level, leading to poor awareness of constitutional and land-related rights.⁴⁹ This deficiency is compounded by courts’ inconsistent application of the Land Act of 2009 (Land Act), unregistered community lands, and non-adherence to institutional roles and responsibilities stipulated in the Land Act.

The Land Act recognises three distinct forms of land: community, private, and public. Public land is owned by the government on behalf of the people, private land is primarily registered by individuals in metropolitan or urban areas, and community land is owned by various groups according to customary laws.⁵⁰ However, the most contentious issue revolves around the distinction between public and communal land. Given that almost all land in South Sudan is inhabited by communities, applying a broad definition of community land implies that, except for privately owned plots and sections controlled by the government, most of the land falls under community ownership.⁵¹ This uncertainty complicates land purchase and development processes.⁵²

The Land Act grants the government the authority to distribute community land for construction and investment projects. Unfortunately, this has led to instances where people are forcefully evicted from their homes to clear land for development, often due to weak law enforcement.⁵³ These forced evictions have, in some cases, resulted in conflicts, with communities reacting violently to halt demolition work. Such incidents not only disrupt communities but also cause significant delays and cost escalations for private sector projects.⁵⁴

A number of land administration tasks lack a robust legal framework and transparent processes, resulting in practices driven by precedent rather than systematic statutory regulations. The South Sudanese government has responded to these challenges by introducing a draft National Land Policy⁵⁵ aimed at establishing a sustainable framework for land rights allocation and protection. This policy addresses a range of pressing issues in land governance such as disputes stemming from a lack of consensus on land ownership, land administration and management systems and the displacement issues arising from conflicts and natural disasters, with a focus on gender equity and non-discrimination.⁵⁶ The policy also seeks to ensure environmentally-friendly and orderly development of human settlements, both rural and urban. The draft National Land Policy has been submitted to the National Legislative Assembly for final approval in December 2024.⁵⁷

In South Sudan, the affordable housing sector presents several market opportunities for investors with notable developments in 2024 signalling a strong focus from the government to encourage investment in the sector. The government has prioritised affordable housing and with the Bank of South Sudan promoting real estate investments, there’s substantial potential in developing housing solutions for the rapidly growing urban population, including returnees and displaced persons. The government’s commitment to infrastructure development, in collaboration with global NGO’s enhances the attractiveness of real estate investments. Development such as the Investment Tower⁵⁸ signals intent by the government to attract investors, and the focus on road repairs allows for easier trade routes making mobility of people and construction materials more attractive.

Informal responses to housing needs, such as community-driven building initiatives and informal settlements, have been prevalent, further exacerbated by the influx of returnees and refugees.⁵⁹ These practices can be supported through formalisation and providing technical assistance that could segue into incremental housing development. Considering the limited financing opportunities, there is space for small scale finance and incremental building to work together to offer sustainable housing solutions. Technological advancements like modular and prefabricated housing can reduce construction costs and accelerate development, making them viable options for affordable housing projects.

Lenders can shift their focus to down-market segments by offering microloans and tailored financial products for low-income households or leveraging remittances, which can improve access to housing finance domestically. Incremental housing development, where homeowners gradually build or upgrade their homes, can be supported through these flexible micro-financing options to allow for progressive investment. Given the limited access to traditional banking services and the increasing prevalence of mobile money, it offers an excellent platform for users to start building a credit history, as observed in many other African countries where mobile money services also function as micro-financiers, exemplified by M-Pesa in Kenya.⁶⁰

On the construction front, advancements in building technologies provide an opportunity for builders and contractors to enhance traditional building materials, making them more durable and sustainable. Considerable research has been conducted across Africa to improve traditional building materials, addressing the pressing housing demands on the continent. One such development involves the use of Compressed Stabilised Earth Blocks (CSEB),⁶¹ which offer a robust building material produced using a relatively small and easily operable manual compression machine. Compressed Stabilised Earth Blocks offer several advantages, including enhanced utilisation of locally sourced materials, reduced transportation costs due to on-site production, increased accessibility to quality housing, and the promotion of local economic growth as opposed to expenditure on imported materials.

The main organisations that collect and share data on housing finance in the country are the Bank of South Sudan (BoSS), which collects data on mortgage lending and other financial products related to housing; the South Sudan National Bureau of Statistics (SSNBS) which collects data on housing conditions and demographics; and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development (MOHUD) which collects data on housing policies and programs. In addition, the SSNBS collects data on climate change impacts, such as flooding and droughts and the MOHUD collects data on the location of informal settlements, which are more vulnerable to climate change impacts. However, the data on housing finance in South Sudan is limited and fragmented and some of the data is not collected regularly or is not made publicly available. There is a lack of data on informal housing and on the housing needs of vulnerable groups, such as women and children.

Bank of South Sudan: www.bankofsouthsudan.org
Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development: www.grss-mof.org
National Bureau of Statistics: www.ssnbss.org
Knoema: www.knoema.com
Intergovernmental Authority on Development: www.southsudan.igad.int
Land Links: www.land-links.org

1. Concern Worldwide USA (2024). The South Sudan crisis, explained. 6 February 2024. https://concernusa.org/news/south-sudan-crisis-explained/ (Accessed 2 August 2024)
2. UNHCR (2024). South Sudan situation report 2023. https://reporting.unhcr.org/operational/situations/south-sudan-situation (Accessed 11 September 2024).
3. Ibid.
4. UNICEF (2024). German support for the people of South Sudan. https://www.unicef.org/southsudan/press-releases/german-support-people-south-sudan-partnership-signed-handover-lologojuba-water (Accessed 2 August 2024).
5. Radio Tamazuj (2024). Malaysian firm to build ‘Investment Tower’ in Juba.
   https://www.radiotamazuj.org/en/news/article/malaysian-firm-to-build-investment-tower-in-juba (Accessed 2 August 2024).
6. Capital FM (2024). UNMISS builds infrastructure to improve security, increase economic activity, access to humanitarian aid, and peacebuilding. https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/business/2024/05/kenyans-urged-to-invest-in-south-sudan/ (Accessed 2 August 2024).
7. Reliefweb (2024). Kenyans Urged To Invest In South Sudan. https://reliefweb.int/report/south-sudan/unmiss-builds-infrastructure-improve-security-increase-economic-activity-access-humanitarian-aid-and-peacebuilding (Accessed 2 August 2024).
8. Eyeradio (2024). Land ministry to take land registry role over from judiciary. https://www.eyeradio.org/land-ministry-to-take-over-land-registry-role-from-judiciary/ (Accessed 2 August 2024).
9. World Bank. (2023). Data. Population, total – South Sudan.
10. UN-Habitat. (2023). Juba Strategic Plan 2023. https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2023/01/juba_strategic_plan_digital_2023.pdf (Accessed 13 August 2023). Pg. 48.
11. Ibid. Pg. 37.
12. Shelter South Sudan. (2017). Key Housing, Land and Property (HLP) Issues in Urban Areas of South Sudan.
    https://www.humanitarianlibrary.org/sites/default/files/2018/06/key_housing_land_and_property_hlp_issues (Accessed 15 August 2023). Pg. 6.
13. African Development Bank (2024). South Sudan Economic Outlook. https://www.afdb.org/en/countries/east-africa/south-sudan/south-sudan-economic-outlook (Accessed 9 September 2024).
14. African Development Bank. (2023). East Africa Economic Outlook. Pg. 7 & 180.
15. Ibid. Pg. 9.
16. Ibid. Pg. 180.
17. International Monetary Fund (2024). Inflation rate, average consumer prices. https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PCPIPCH@WEO/VEN/IRN/ARG/SSD/SDN/AFQ (Accessed 10 September 2024).
18. Email correspondence with Moses Mawa Felix Lado, architect and lecturer at the University of Juba, 15 August 2023.
19. African Development Bank (2024). South Sudan Economic Outlook. https://www.afdb.org/en/countries/east-africa/south-sudan/south-sudan-economic-outlook (Accessed 9 September 2024).
20. See footnote 14. Pg. 180.
21. Bank of South Sudan. (2022). About Us. https://boss.gov.ss/who-we-are/ (Accessed 12 August 2023).
22. IGAD (2023). Regional Harmonization of Remittance Policies in the Intergovernmental Authority on Development – South Sudan Diagnostic Report. Pg. 10.
23. US Department of State. (2021). Investment Climate Statements: South Sudan.
24. Storchi, G. (2023). South Sudan: Mobile money’s role in the road to recovery, 20 January 2023, GSMA.
25. See footnote 23.
26. Equity Bank. Diaspora Mortgage/Construction Loan. https://equitygroupholdings.com/ss/borrow/diasporaa-mortgage-construction-loan (Accessed 20 August 2023).
27. Kenya Commercial Bank. Mortgages. Buy Plot and Construct. https://ss.kcbgroup.com/for-you/get-a-loan-ss/mortgages/buy-already-built-homes-home-loan (Accessed 28 August 2022).
28. Kenya Commercial Bank. Mortgages. Special Staff Scheme Loan.
29. See footnote 23. Pg. 10.
30.  Ibid. Pg. 18.
31. Shelter South Sudan. (2017). Key Housing, Land and Property (HLP) Issues in Urban Areas of South Sudan. Pg. 6.
32. World Bank. (2022). Data. South Sudan Country Profile. https://data.worldbank.org/country/south-sudan
    (Accessed 20 August 2023).
33. Ibid.
34. UNDP (2022). South Sudan Labour Market Analysis. Pg. 9.
35. BTI Transformation Index (2022). Country Report, South Sudan. Pg. 17.
36. Email correspondence with Solomon Tombe, chief engineer and founder of Tombico, 12 August 2023.
37. Ibid.
38. Email correspondence with Moses Mawa Felix Lado, architect and lecturer at the University of Juba, 15 August 2023.
39. World Bank (2016). Population living in slums (% of urban population) – South Sudan.
    https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.SLUM.UR.ZS?locations=SS (Accessed 20 August 2023).
40. UN-Habitat (2023). Juba Strategic Plan 2023. https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2023/01/juba_strategic_plan_digital_2023.pdf (Accessed 13 August 2023). Pg. 105.
41. University of Buffalo. Materials and Constructability: Questions of Availability, Affordability, and Appropriateness.
42. Index Mundi (2023). South Sudan Demographics Profile.
43. World Bank (2020). Doing Business 2020: Comparing Business Regulation in 190 Economies. Pg. 10.
44. Ocieng, F. (2021). Shelter Afrique signs USD1.5bn housing deal with South Sudan. 11 May 2021. The Trading Room.
45. Ibid.
46. See footnote 43.
47. Ibid. Pg. 4.
48. Elizka Relief Foundation (2023). “A place to live in dignity for all: Make housing affordable”. Pg. 6.
49. UN-Habitat. (2023). Juba Strategic Plan 2023. https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2023/01/juba_strategic_plan_digital_2023.pdf (Accessed 11 September 2024). Pg. 46.
50. See footnote 48. Pg. 7.
51. Ibid. Pg. 7.
52. Ibid.
53. World Bank (2024). Land Governance in South Sudan: Policies for Peace and Development.
    https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/421901468336313987/pdf/869580WP0P14370nance0in0South0Sudan.pdf?_gl=1*1dfdc8o*_gcl_au*MjEwNTI3MDIwNi4xNzI0MjI0MjYx (Accessed 11 September 2024). Pg. 36.
54. See footnote 48. Pg. 7.
55. Republic of South Sudan Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development (2023). Draft National Land Policy.
    https://www.sudanspost.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Draft-South-Sudan-National-Land-Policy-23-April-2023.pdf (Accessed 11 September 2024). Pg. 6.
56. Ibid. Pg. 19.
57. GAD (2024). Building concensus towards an inclusive National Land Policy in South Sudan.
    https://igad.int/building-consensus-towards-an-inclusive-national-land-policy-in-south-sudan/ (Accessed 11 September 2024).
58. Radio Tamazuj (2024). Malaysian firm to build ‘Investment Tower’ in Juba, https://www.radiotamazuj.org/en/news/article/malaysian-firm-to-build-investment-tower-in-juba (Accessed 2 August 2024).
59. Concern Worldwide USA (2024). The South Sudan crisis, explained. 6 February 2024.
    https://concernusa.org/news/south-sudan-crisis-explained/ (Accessed 2 August 2024)
60. Piper, K. (2020). What Kenya can teach its neighbours – and the US – about improving the lives of the “unbanked”. 11 Sep 2020. Vox Media.
61. Waziri, B & Lawan, Z & Mala, M. (2013). Properties of Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks (CSEB) For Low-Cost Housing Construction: A Preliminary Investigation. International Journal of Sustainable Construction Engineering and Technology. 4. 2180-3242. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303198091_Properties_of_
    Compressed_Stabilized_Earth_Blocks_CSEB_For_Low-Cost_Housing_Construction_A_Preliminary_Investigation
    (Accessed 25 August 2023). Pg. 1