Benin is a French-speaking West African country. Benin’s population was predicted to be 12,123,198 people in 2021, with a 2.7% annual growth rate. The unemployment rate is considered low at 2%, yet 38.5% of people live in poverty. Population growth and rapid urbanisation have generated environmental issues such as the unsustainable use of natural resources, the proliferation of plastic garbage, problems with household waste management, and an increase in floods.

Benin’s economy has been resilient, with a GDP growth rate in 2021 estimated at 6.6% despite the protracted effects of COVID-19. The country was able to count on good performance in the agricultural sector, including the export of three main products: cotton, cashew nuts, and shea. The consumer price inflation rate stood at 1.7% in 2021, below the convergence criteria of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU). This declining level of inflation is mainly due to the improvement in food imports.

Benin’s economy is primarily dependent on natural resources, making it sensitive to climate change effects. Benin adopted a national climate change adaptation plan in May 2022, with one of the strategic objectives being to promote a resilient system for the management and exploitation of natural resources and ecosystems. Two specific objectives have been defined for the infrastructure and urban planning sectors: promoting climate-smart urbanisation and developing sustainable cities. Furthermore, the country has a National Disaster Risk Reduction Strategy (2019–30). These strategies have an impact on the affordable housing sector’s urban development and sanitation components.

Housing supply in Benin is more informal than formal, and individuals construct their own homes using their own money. Cement and concrete building materials predominate in housing construction, particularly in cities. In general, building supplies have suffered significant inflation as a result of COVID-19 and the worldwide fallout from Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. The high cost of building materials raises the cost of affordable housing, which remains a significant concern.

The percentage of Beninis who use a mortgage to finance their housing remains low. This is due to the banks’ stringent mortgage requirements. Banks may lend amounts ranging from CFA 25 000 000 (US$ 39 679) to CFA 100 000 000 (US$ 158 717) according to the customer’s demands, which may include land acquisition, rehabilitation, or a new building. Microfinance has a little role in housing finance, while a portion of client loans are undoubtedly invested in real estate developments. It would be prudent for these organisations to investigate the viability of real estate financing alternatives.

Benin’s housing needs are becoming increasingly critical as its population grows and its large cities face increased pressure. Rising cement costs may offer chances for substitution with less expensive alternatives.

Benin is a country with an area of 115 762 km2,¹ bordering Togo, Burkina Faso, Niger and Nigeria. It enjoys political stability despite some tensions in the north of the country, where it borders with Sahel countries. It has 13 712 828 inhabitants in 2023,² of which 49.8% are women and 50.11% are men,³ with an annual population growth rate of 2.63%.⁴ The national poverty rate is 36.2%⁵ and marked by a strong disparity between urban and rural areas.⁶ Despite continued improvement in indicators, development indices remain low, with the country’s Human Capital Index (HCI)⁷ at 0.4⁸ and the Human Development Index (HDI) at 0.52.⁹ These figures are the result of a low life expectancy at birth (59.8 years), a low school enrolment rate (4.4 years on average) and a low Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita: CFA875 450/inhabitant (US$1 435/inhabitant) in 2023.¹⁰

Half of the country’s population lives in urban areas on 40% of the country’s total land area, representing an urbanisation rate of 58%. The population is divided between 122 cities of more than 10 000 inhabitants, mostly located in the south of the country. Four cities have more than 100 000 inhabitants.¹¹ The country has experienced relatively recent urbanisation, with a tripling of its urban population between 2000 and 2015, which accentuates the need for infrastructure and housing, especially in urban areas. Even if the country has low urbanisation, in the south of the country, there is a phenomenon of densification of peri-urban areas.¹²

In 2023, economic growth is expanding by 5.8%¹³ and is expected to stabilise at 6.2% between 2024 and 2026.¹⁴ Inflation doubled from 1.4% to 2.8% between 2022 and 2023.¹⁵ As a result, the country has seen a reduction in its fiscal deficit from 5.5% of GDP in 2022 to 4.5% in 2023.¹⁶ Even if the revenue outlook is encouraging, Benin faces sharp fluctuations in the global prices of its cotton exports, oil imports, and climate change impacts.¹⁷ According to the World Bank (WB), the country must make large-scale investments in climate change adaptation to avoid a drastic drop in its economic growth of up to 19% on average per year by 2050.¹⁸ The African Development Bank (AfDB) has launched the African Green Bank initiative, which benefits the Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations (CDC) of Benin.¹⁹ It should strengthen green investments in Benin and attract private funds to support climate action, but it remains unclear whether these funds will also be dedicated to the housing sector. Yet, Benin faces a housing backlog of 300 000 units, which the property market is struggling to fill.²⁰

Benin has 14 banks,²¹ one banking financial institution²² and 106 licensed Decentralised Financial Systems (DFS) institutions,²³ including 80 cooperatives, 16 associations, nine public limited companies and one limited liability company.²⁴ The financial inclusion rate is 86.81%, the second highest rate in the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU),²⁵ thanks to a good penetration rate of financial services, accessible via a network of 2 931 service points over 1 000 km2, 1 830 points more than in 2021.²⁶ This represents 454 points of service per 10 000 inhabitants in 2022, which is at least twice as many service points per 10 000 inhabitants as in all other WAEMU countries.²⁷ In 2022, 37.5% of adults have an account with a bank, postal service, national savings bank or the treasury. This banking penetration rate is the highest in the WAEMU,²⁸ and rises to 85.7%²⁹ for the expanded banking penetration rate including microfinance institutions, and to 86.8%³⁰ when electronic money services are also included.

On the savings side, despite a decrease in deposit interest rates from 5.40% in 2021 to 5.23% in 2022,³¹ the volume of deposits increased by 0.8% over the same period, to reach CFA1.6 billion (US$2.6 million).³² Similarly, deposits collected by microfinance institutions increased by 2.4%, reaching CFA4.5 billion (US$7.3 million).³³ At the same time, access to credit is tightening with a rise in interest rates: a general increase of +21 points in the WAEMU.³⁴ In Benin, the interest rate rose from 6.91% to 7.08% over the same period.³⁵ However, Benin recorded a 46.6% increase in total loans allocated between 2021 and 2022, peaking at nearly CFA1 491 billion (US$2.4 million), including CFA18.3 billion (US$29.9 million) granted by microfinance institutions.³⁶ Of the total loans granted, 16% or CFA238.8 billion(US$391 million) are lent to households.^{37, 38}

The Banque de l’Habitat du Bénin (BHB) was absorbed into the Banque de l’Afrique (Bank of Africa) (BOA) in 2018.³⁹ The latter offers loans for the acquisition or construction of a property offering up to 100% loan to value (LTV) ratio, for a maximum period of 20 years (25 years under conditions) at a fixed interest rate. To access this loan, you must be between 18 and 60 years old, and receive a regular salary.⁴⁰ Société Générale du Bénin (SGB) offers a “personal real estate” loan at an interest rate of 6.8% excluding tax, over a maximum period of 20 years. To access this loan, a personal contribution of 10% is mandatory, alongside an insurance contract and property as collateral.⁴¹ Lastly, Orabank offers the “CRRH real estate loan” and the “CRRH social housing loan” allowing access to loans of CFA80 million (US$131 132) at 7% excluding tax and CFA15 million (US$24 587) at 6% excluding tax. The conditions and guarantees requested vary according to the level of income, but the two loans are only accessible to holders of a Permanent Contract (CDI).⁴² None of these commercial banks offers a credit solution that is accessible to workers in the informal sector or independent entrepreneurs in the formal sector. Existing loans are therefore only available to 7% of Benin’s total population.⁴³

To improve financial inclusion, the state has launched the National Financial Inclusion Strategy to strengthen access to finance for vulnerable people, particularly women and young adults. Similarly, the Ministry of Economy and Finance has signed a decree, “prohibiting any gender-based discrimination in access to credit from financial institutions” in order to improve women’s access to bank credit.^{44, 45}

At the regional level, initiatives continue to emerge from the WAEMU Regional Mortgage Refinancing Bank (CRRH) through its 2023-2027 Strategic Plan. The latter enabled the set up Housing Loan Guarantees (LPG) in May 2024 thanks to the collaboration between the African Solidarity Fund (ASF)⁴⁶ and the CRRH to share the risk and increase financing capacities in the field of housing.⁴⁷ The challenge remains to allow households to access dedicated mortgages rather than commercial loans acting as mortgages.⁴⁸ It is therefore crucial to carry out a parallel policy of strengthening the securitisation of real estate to allow the use of title deeds as collateral by banks when applying for loans.⁴⁹

In 2013, the employed labour force⁵⁰ represented 97.7% of the country’s total population, of which 58.8%⁵¹ were men and 41.2% were women.⁵² The employed labour force is mainly divided between jobs in the primary sector (50.1%) and the tertiary sector (31.7%), compared with 17.1% in the secondary sector.⁵³ Informal work accounted for 96% of jobs in 2022, contributing to increased precariousness and underemployment.^{54, 55} In 2022, 78%⁵⁶ of jobs were vulnerable (83% for women).⁵⁷Young people do not participate in the labour market; 34.5% of young people aged 15-24 do not pursue any formal education.⁵⁸ In 2013, the multidimensional poverty rate affected 41.7% of the total population in Benin and more than half of the inhabitants of rural areas (56.1%).⁵⁹

Given the dominance of informal employment in Benin’s economy, it is difficult to rely on data from the formal sector to make generalisations about households’ financial resources. Nevertheless, the mandatory minimum wage increased in January 2023, from CFA40 000 (US$66) to CFA52 000 (US$85) per month, i.e. a 30% increase⁶⁰ for 40 hours of weekly work according to Article 142-143 of the Labour Code.⁶¹ This regulation, which is supposed to apply to all workers, only really applies to the 7% of the national workforce, which are formal workers. The average monthly income ranges from CFA39 513 (US$65) to CFA82 060 (US$134) for informal sector workers, while it can go up to more than CFA200 000 (US$328) for formal workers⁶² In 2021, 38% of Beninese still live on less than CFA4 210 (US$6.90) per day⁶³ and 12.7% on less than CFA1165 (US$1.91) per day.⁶⁴

Between May 2023 and May 2024,the consumer price index increased from 110.7 to 113.3 (0.9% year-on-year),⁶⁵ resulting in inflation of 1.3% in May 2024.⁶⁶ “Housing, water, gas, electricity and other fuels”, representing 15.2% of household expenditure,⁶⁷ are the most affected by this inflation (+4.8%), after the transport sector,⁶⁸ due to the increase in fuel prices.⁶⁹ In 2015, a Beninese household spent an average of CFA1 175 245 (US$1 926) per year on housing, or CFA97 937 (US$160) per month.⁷⁰ These amounts correspond on average to 9.74% of total household expenditure, the second largest item of expenditure after food (48.92%).⁷¹ In 2024,the average monthly expenditure per person can be estimated at CFA20 814 (US$34) per month.⁷² In Cotonou, a household spends twice as much on housing as in the rest of the country: CFA2 461 242 per year (US$4 034).⁷³ This monthly level of spending on housing represents one-third of the average monthly income of an informal worker, estimated at CFA60786 (US$99).⁷⁴

In 2013 the housing supply in Benin was individual centred, with collective housing only representing 1.5% of the housing supply (2.7% in urban areas).⁷⁵ Most households build their own homes with limited technical and financial resources. Dwellings are mainly built of brick (42.8%) or earth (43.5%) with a tin roof (81.4%) or straw roof (10%, 5% in urban areas). More than half of the dwellings in rural areas (58.8%) and three quarter of the dwellings in urban areas are made of cement. More than half of Beninese do not have access to home toilets⁷⁶ and flushing toilets are only used by 6.6% of the population.⁷⁷ Access to basic services remains low. Nearly 90% of households do not have access to wastewater treatment or a waste disposal system: 75% of households dump their garbage in nature or on the road.⁷⁸ There is a strong disparity in access to electricity between urban and rural areas, with 54.8% of urban people using Beninese electricity services and 59.1% of rural people using oil for lighting.⁷⁹

In Benin, 99% of housing is self-built.⁸⁰ The formal supply of housing is low and is concentrated in the hands of a few private real estate developers/builders governed by Decree No. 99-313 of 22 June 1999.⁸¹ In total, there are about 30 real estate developers⁸² and about 20 formal companies in the Buildings and Public Works (BTP) sector, but their production remains low.⁸³ Between December 2023 and January 2024, the construction sector recorded an acceleration in activity of +13.4 percentage points.⁸⁴ In the profession, salaries can range from CFA200 000 (US$328) to more than CFA600 000 (US$983) per month for formal employees,⁸⁵ while an informal worker earns between CFA3 000 (US$4.92) and CFA4 000 (US$6.56) per day.⁸⁶

Most developers carry out high-end housing projects. Only two developers seem to be building social and affordable housing: GCITT Benin SA (a private company) and the Société Immobilière et d’Aménagement Urbain (SImAU) created in 2017 by the Ministry of Living Environment and Sustainable Development.⁸⁷

The SImAU oversees various real estate development programmes. An example is the 20 000 Social and Affordable Housing Programme, a flagship initiative of the Government Action Programme (PAG), for a total cost of CFA385 billion (US$631 million). This programme provides 20 000 housing units for sale, rental or rent-to-own (17 or 25-year term), which are distributed across 12 690 individual housing units and 7 310 collective housing units in 14 cities in Benin.⁸⁸ The first phase is currently underway, financed by various banks.⁸⁹ It concerns the primary servicing of the Ouèdo site, the secondary and tertiary servicing of other sites of the programme and the construction of 11 274 housing units, including 10 849 in Ouèdo, 175 in Porto Novo and 250 in Parakou.⁹⁰ The programme provides for eight categories of accommodation. Households that acquire social housing (type D) benefit from additional advantages from the government, namely the assumption of land ownership, technical studies and supervision of works, as well as primary, secondary and tertiary servicing.⁹¹

In 2017, the National Agency of Real Estate Agencies of Benin (ANAIB) was created to be the privileged interlocutor between real estate professionals and clients. About 120 real estate agencies in charge of the sale of plots and properties, and rental transactions are counted throughout the country.⁹²

According to the latest census, only 6.1% of Beninese households are homeowners with a land title, 8.5% in urban areas.⁹³ To strengthen land regularisation, the government has launched two flagship digitisation programmes. Firstly, the setting up the national cadastre via the e-land portal in 2019 (national extension in February 2023) which made it possible to identify 460 000 plots in 24 districts and 12 municipalities.⁹⁴ Secondly, the e-notary platform in 2020, which allows the transfer of ownership by the National Agency for Domain and Land (ANDF) at a reduced price and in 72 hours instead of the previous 120 days.⁹⁵ Since 2022, the tax rate on property income has been 12%.⁹⁶ These changes are in line with the new land policy measures.

While there is no law prohibiting women’s land ownership, customary law excludes them in most cases. Women are disinherited by their brothers or other members of their families,⁹⁷ and even dispossessed in the event of a real estate or land purchase in their name.⁹⁸ This phenomenon affects rural and urban areas, and all social classes. At the local level, the Land Management Commissions (CoGeF) and the Village Land Management Sessions (SVGCF)⁹⁹ oversee procedures, and in partnership with associations and specialised lawyers, support women in their efforts.¹⁰⁰

The formal supply of housing for purchase and rental is mainly present in urban centres. A third of urban Beninese rent a home (29.3%),¹⁰¹ which represents a significant share of the need for rental housing. Prices vary greatly between the six main cities in Benin, as they are targeted by development programmes that tend to increase purchase and rental prices. For example, in the Ladji district, the price for a plot of land is between CFA3 – 5 million (US$4 917 and US$8 196) but could double by 2025.¹⁰² In the upscale neighbourhoods of Cotonou, a dwelling of 100 to 120m2 can cost nearly CFA100 million (US$164 000) to buy and about CFA2 million (US$3 278) per month to rent. Outside of these neighbourhoods the prices rapidly fall,¹⁰³ similar housing costs CFA10 – 15 million (US$16 392 to US$24 587) on the outskirts of Porto Novo. ¹⁰⁴ Most Beninese live in rooms with toilets on the ground floor and monthly rent ranging from CFA75 000 – 120 000 (US$123 – US$197). In other urban centres, rent can be 20% to 30% cheaper.¹⁰⁵

Several legislative changes from the last year are noteworthy, particularly in terms of land policy, which could have a significant impact on future investments in the housing sector. On 14 August 2023 a new Land and State Code came into force. This code stipulates that agreements for the sale of plots can only be signed by notaries and no longer by the local authorities, and that the sale can only be made if the plot has a land title.¹⁰⁶ It stipulates that “the land title becomes mandatory before any land transaction. It constitutes, in the eyes of the law, the only document to justify the definitive right of ownership”.¹⁰⁷ In March 2024, the certificate of customary possession was suspended in all communes¹⁰⁸ and Supplementary Decree No. 2024-917 of 24 April 2024 was promulgated. It concerns the creation of a register of beneficial owners at the ANDF.¹⁰⁹

In addition, in December 2023 Decree No. 2023-617 was signed into effect to regulate building permits and demolition permits, as well as specify the three categories of building permits in Benin.¹¹⁰ Applications for building permits must be signed by a private architect registered with the National Order of Architects (except for certain works). According to Article 29, three planning authorisation committees – at the departmental, municipal, and national levels – will be created to examine applications¹¹¹ within a maximum of 25 days. ¹¹² The building permit will be valid for four years (Article 40) and this period may be reduced to three years if the construction work has not started (Article 41).¹¹³ Benin’s national portal of public services specifies the distribution of investigation costs by category, according to the following distribution: municipality (40%), planning authorisation commissions (40%), inspection commissions (10%) and the State (10%) (Article 14).¹¹⁴

Housing needs remain immense in Benin, both from a quantitative and qualitative point of view. The latter understands the need for enhanced and comprehensive access to basic services (water, electricity, home toilets and sanitation). The formal housing market, in addition to being at embryonic stages, is not accessible to 93% of the Beninese due to a lack of adequate access to finance. Benin is currently carrying out a pilot programme to build 20 000 housing units through the SImAU, which is trying to increase supply to meet demand.

To facilitate and encourage real estate development, Benin has been committed to large-scale programmes that regulate, supervise, support and digitise data and crucial administrative steps (securitisation, building permits, etc.). These efforts contribute to the regularisation of land tenure, as well as to the supervision and better monitoring of construction in order to improve the quality of housing in the long term. The prerequisites for a housing policy that produces new housing which is truly social seem to be in place. However, it will be important to monitor the first housing allocations in order to assess the profile of the beneficiaries and to verify the true accessibility to vulnerable households.

Investment needs remain substantial, particularly in secondary cities and in periurban areas, which are at the heart of new employment areas. For example, the future industrial zone of Glo Djigbé located 45km from Cotonou has the ambition to create 350 000 new jobs, which means that just as much housing needs to be built for workers from all over the country and elsewhere.¹¹⁵

Beyond the construction of new housing, it is equally important to focus on the renovation of existing housing, which is an essential component of urban restructuring programmes. It appears to be a priority to engage in projects of this type targeting precarious neighbourhoods to support the most vulnerable populations in improving their housing and living environment. To this end, further work is needed to identify and support grassroots community organisations.

Benin benefits from extensive online documentation, in particular through the Benin Revealed website, which lists all the projects included in the Government’s Action Programme. The website is structured by themes, with each project description including information on progress and budget. A section detailing reforms and new regulations is also available. In addition, the website of the General Secretariat of the Government makes all the decrees available, which greatly facilitates the work of collecting data. The new digital platforms giving access to the entire land registry and allowing the digitisation of securitisation procedures and building permits are a real added value to carry out studies for future investments in favor of the riBenin benefits from extensive online documentation, in particular through the Benin Revealed website, which lists all the projects included in the Government’s Action Programme. The website is structured by themes, with each project description including information on progress and budget. A section detailing reforms and new regulations is also available. In addition, the website of the General Secretariat of the Government makes all the decrees available, which greatly facilitates the work of collecting data. The new digital platforms giving access to the entire land registry and allowing the digitisation of securitisation procedures and building permits are a real added value to carry out studies for future investments in favor of the right to dignified and affordable housing. The last census dates from 2013, with an update being processed (2023). The INSTaD website offers other data too. Bank data disaggregated by type of credit and gender would greatly improve the analysis, but neither the BCEAO, commercial bank or WAEMU reports provide this level of detail.ght to dignified and affordable housing. The last census dates from 2013, with an update being processed (2023). The INSTaD website offers other data too. Bank data disaggregated by type of credit and gender would greatly improve the analysis, but neither the BCEAO, commercial bank or WAEMU reports provide this level of detail.

There are no so-called “ecological” building standards  in Benin. Decree No. 2014-205 of 13 March 2014 simply regulates the issuance of building permits. However, some initiatives in developing ecological building materials are to be noted, for instance, the company Nature Brique is the first ceramic plant  established in Benin.[1] The terracotta brick manufacturing plant started operations in 2011. The bricks are made from vacuum-extruded clay, dried and baked between 850° and 950°. Terracotta bricks are one-third of the weight of cinder blocks. Terracotta brick has features such as good thermal and acoustic insulation. However, this technology struggles to convince people, who still prefer cement bricks.

The production of electrical energy in Benin is essentially of fossil fuel origin. According to the data of the report on Sustainable Development in Benin 2022, the sources of electric energy production are: natural gas 75.7%, oil 23.6% and solar 0.7%. The electrification rate in Benin was 41.4% according to World Bank data. This figure remains below the subregion’s average of 48.3%.[2] [3] However, the Beninese government plans to reach, by 2025, a national rate of electricity coverage of 75% of the country, including 50% in rural areas and 90% in urban areas. In July 2022, the government approved a new electricity access policy that significantly reduces the costs of connecting to the electricity grid from CFA85 000 (US$134.90) to CFA25 000 (US$39.67). In addition, green energy is increasingly being developed by government initiatives through solar power plants.

For off-grid electrification, the Beninese authorities benefit from the support of the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA BENIN) to improve access to electricity in rural areas.

[1] Nature Brique. Terracotta brick.  AMK Engineering. https://www.amkbtp.com/produit/594a91133218f1110008f70c#:~:text=NATURE%20BRIQUE%20est%20la%20premi%C3%A8re,de%20briques%20en%20terre%20cuite (Accessed 27 August 2022).

[2] UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network (2022)., Sustainable Development Report for Benin 2022. July 2022. https://irp.cdn-website.com/be6d1d56/files/uploaded/220712%20BENIN_SDR2022.pdf (Accessed 11 September 2022).  Pg. 34.

[3] World Bank (2020). https://donnees.banquemondiale.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=BJ, (Accessed 11 September 2022).

E-land portal: http://e-foncier.bj/
E-notary platform: https://enotaire.andf.bj/connexion/
Benin revealed: https://beninrevele.bj/
National Institute of Statistics and Demography (INStaD): https://instad.bj/
Société Immobilière de d’Aménagement Urbain (SImAU): https://simaubenin.com/
National Agency for Domain and Land (ANDF): https://www.andf.bj/
General Secretariat of the Government of Benin (SGG): https://sgg.gouv.bj/
Benin Cadastre: https://cadastre.bj/
Notary of Benin: https://enotaire.andf.bj/connexion/#
Orabank Benin: https://www.orabank.net/fr/filiale/benin
BOA Benin: https://www.boabenin.com/
Ecobank Benin: https://ecobank.com/bj/foire-aux-prets
Societe Generale of Benin: https://societegenerale.bj/fr/
Armag Africa: https://armagafrique.com/projets/
Triumphus Benin: https://www.triumphusbenin.com/
BACID: https://www.bacid.com/
GCITT: https://www.gcitt.com/

1. BCEAO (2024).Area of Benin. https://www.bceao.int/fr/etats-membres/benin (Accessed 18 June 2024).
2. World Bank (2023). Number of inhabitants, Benin.
3. See footnote 2.
4.  See Footnote 2.
5. World Bank (2022). Poverty rate, Benin.
6. UNDP. Cooperation Programme between the Government of Benin and UNDP for the period 2024-2026. https://tinyurl.com/mr2f5yad (Accessed 18 June 2024). Pg. 5.
7. The human capital index was created by the World Bank, it quantifies how much human capital each country loses due to a health and education deficit (index from 0 to 1), 1 represents the optimal situation of full education and full health.
8. World Bank. (2020). Human Capital Index, Benin.
9. See footnote 6. Pg. 5.
10. World Bank. (2023). GDP per capita.
11. Africapolis. (2020). Number of inhabitants, Benin.
12. Africapolis. (2020). Country report- Benin.
13. World Bank. (2023). Economic growth, Benin.
14. World Bank. (2024). Benin’s Economic Outlook Report 2024:Adapting to Climate Change for Sustainable and Resilient Economic Growth.
15. World Bank (2024). Country Overview- Benin.
16. World Bank (2023). Fiscal deficit, Benin.
17. African Development Bank (2024). Economic Outlook in Benin. https://tinyurl.com/mv5xcka6 (Accessed 18 June 2024).
18. See footnote 14.
19. African Development Bank. (2023).African Green Bank of the African Development Bank: Benin and Côte d’Ivoire are the first beneficiaries. 15 May 2023.
20. Videoconference interview with Raymond Aboki, Director of Real Estate Development and Promotion, SImAU, 5 July 2024, Dakar, Senegal.
21. BCEAO. (2023). Banking landscape, Benin. https://www.bceao.int/fr/content/paysage-bancaire (Accessed 27 June
    2024).
22. Lending, leasing or renting financial institutions with option to purchase, guarantee, factoring and payment.
23. Dounya. (2023). Microfinance in Benin:There are the 106 licensed decentralized financial systems in Benin as of 30 April 2024. 16 May 2024. Economia24.
24. Antinkpahoun, B. (2024). Decentralized financial systems: 106 licensed microfinance institutions. 21May 2024. The Nation.
25. BCEAO (2023). Report on the situation of financial inclusion in WAEMU during the year 2022. https://tinyurl.com/ymkrrwh8 (Accessed 27 June 2024). Pg. 8.
26. See footnote 25. Pg. 27.
27. See footnote 25. Pg. 26.
28. See footnote 25. Pg. 28.
29. See footnote 25. Pg. 30.
30. See footnote 25. Pg. 31.
31. BCEAO. (2023).WAEMU Banking Conditions Report 2022. Pg. 41.
32. See footnote 31. Pg. 23.
33. BCEAO. (2023). Situation of microfinance in WAEMU as of 30 June 2023. Pg. 2.
34. See footnote 25. Pg. 32.
35. See footnote 25. Pg. 33.
36. See footnote 31. Pg. 35.
37. See footnote 31. Pg. 37.
38. Manual calculation (amount of loans granted to households / total amount of credit)*100
39. Wade,A. (2018). Benin: BOA absorbs the housing bank. Financial Afrik. 13 February 2018.
40. BOA Benin. Ready my House. https://tinyurl.com/3pcxh8sv (Accessed 27 June 2024).
41. Societe Generale Benin. Real estate loan simulator. https://tinyurl.com/y63p6fmf (Accessed 27 June 2024).
42. Orabank. CRRH Real Estate Loan. https://tinyurl.com/mv3ef27a (Accessed 27 June 2024).
43. Decent Work Country Programme (DWCP) in Benin (2022-2024). http://tiny.cc/7psmzz (Accessed 17 September 2024). Pg. 10.
44. See footnote 25. Pg.12.
45. LuxDev. Ben/005 Inclusive Finance. https://luxdev.lu/fr/activities/project/BEN/005 (Accessed 27 June 2024).
46. African Solidarity Fund. https://www.fondsolidariteafricain.org/ (Accessed 27 June 2024).
47. Financial Afrik. (2024). Launch of the “Garantie de prêts au logement” GPL by CRRH-UEMOA and the FSA. 17 May 2024. Financial Afrika.
48. World Bank. (2023). Interview with Mrs.Yadau Ougoundele, Director General of the WAEMU Regional Mortgage Refinancing Bank. 7 November 2023.
49. See footnote 48.
50. Population of working age (10 years and over) who are actually employed.
51. Manual calculation derived from the % of employed female labour force.
52. INSAE. (2016). Main socio-demographic and economic indicators (RGPH 4, 2013). https://tinyurl.com/2vfvadf3 (Accessed 26 June 2024). Pg. 14.
53. See footnote 52.
54. ILO. (2022). Employment (% of total labor force) – Informally employed.
55. Underemployment refers to people in part-time jobs who want to work more hours and are available to do so, whether or not they are looking for work.
56. World Bank. (2022).Vulnerable jobs, Benin.
57. World Bank (2022).Vulnerable jobs for women, Benin.
58. IOE. (2023).Analysis of the business climate in LDCs. Pg. 3.
59. See footnote 52. Pg. 18.
60. This increase varies according to the job categories; “the midwife by an increase from 51 to 29% of her current income, the doctor between 11 and 10%, the teacher between 34 and 12%”.
61. The 4Truths. (2022).Wage revaluation: In Benin, the minimum wage increases by 30%. 9 December 2022. The 4 Truths.
62. See footnote 58. Pg. 3.
63. World Bank. (2021). Poverty gap at $6.85 a day, Benin.
64. World Bank. (2021). Ratio of the poor population living on less than $1.90 per day, Benin.
65. INSTAD. (2024). Consumer Price Index, Benin
66. Inflation rate according to the convergence criterion in the WAEMU area. It is an indicator that is the result of 24 months of observation of consumer prices.
67. INSTAD (2015). EMICOV. https://tinyurl.com/2bp4xzjj (Accessed 26 June 2024). Pg. 4.
68. INSTAD (2024). Price increase, Benin
69. WAEMU (2024). Harmonized Index of Consumer Prices (HICP) in the WAEMU. Pg. 5.
70. See footnote 67. Pg. 1.
71. See footnote 67. Pg. 4.
72. Manual calculation based on the monthly amount spent by a person in 2015 * 4.8%.
73. See footnote 67. Pg. 2.
74. Manual calculation (82,060 + 39,513)/2 (basic figures above).
75. See footnote 52. Pg. 18.
76. Flush toilet or pit latrine.
77. See footnote 52. Pg. 21.
78. See footnote 52. Pg. 21.
79. See footnote 52. Pg. 19.
80. Videoconference interview with Raymond Aboki, Director of Real Estate Development and Promotion, SImAU, 5 July 2024, Dakar, Senegal.
81. General Secretariat of the Government. Decree No. 1999-313 of 22 June 1999.
82. Go Africa Online. Real estate developers in Cotonou and Benin.
    https://www.goafricaonline.com/bj/annuaire/promoteurs-immobiliers (Accessed 25 June 2024).
83. Affodégon,A. (2023). List of the best construction companies in Benin. 7 October 2023. ProBati.
84. BCEAO. (2024). Economic outlook in WAEMU countries. https://tinyurl.com/3yp6djnu (Accessed 25 June 2024). Pg. 11.
85. Paylab. Salary, Benin. https://www.paylab.com/bj/salaires/construction-immobilier?lang=fr# (Accessed 25 June 2024).
86. Phone interview with Antoine Agossou, President of the Hazobit Benin Federation, 2 July 2024, Dakar, Senegal.
87. Financed by banks, insurance companies and deposit banks.
88. BOAD. Programme of 20,000 social and economic housing units in Benin. https://tinyurl.com/v6khauf7 (Accessed 21 June 2024).
89. West African Development Bank; Islamic Development Bank; National Social Security Fund; Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa
90. See footnote 88.
91. Société Immobilière et d’Aménagement Urbain. https://www.simaubenin.com/typologie_logement (Accessed 17 September 2024).
92. Manual calculation from an online search. http://tiny.cc/frsmzz (Accessed 25 June 2024).
93. Cumulative calculation of the following data: proportion of households owned with land title (%) and proportion of households owned by family property with land title (%). See footnote 52. Pg. 17.
94. Benin revealed.The process of generalizing Benin’s national cadastre will soon begin.
95. Ministry of Economy and Finance (2020). Dematerialisation of land: the National Agency for Land and Land launches the e-Notaire platform. https://tinyurl.com/3x2dpzbu (Accessed 26 June 2024).
96. Agbon, S.B. (2022). 12% tax on property income: the meaning of the new provision. 7 January 2022. Benin
    Intelligent.
97. Inter-networks Rural development. (2024).Access to land, a headache for several women in Benin. https://tinyurl.com/ycm6spfe (Accessed 27 June 2024).
98. Adandé, G.F. (2020).The Beninese are fighting against tradition for equitable access to land. 4 August 2020.Voa Africa.
99. Jocard,A. (2019). Beninese women, still excluded from inheritance by customary law. 22 October 2019. RFI.
100. CareTogether against inequality. (2018). In Benin, women enforce their property rights. 2 July 2018. Care France.
101. See footnote 52. Pg. 17.
102. Videoconference interview with Coffi Fiacre Nouwadjro, Program Officer at the Maison de la Société Civile, Doctor in Urban Planning, 8 July 2024, Dakar, Senegal.
103. Videoconference interview with Raymond Aboki, Director of Real Estate Development and Promotion, SImAU, 5 July 2024, Dakar, Senegal
104. See footnote 102.
105. See footnote 103.
106. ANCB (2023). Changes announced in the Management of State Affairs as of 15 August 2023:The ANCB brings together municipal stakeholders and land experts to take stock of the measures to be taken in order to better serve the populations. 26 July 2023.ANCB.
107. Nouwadjro, C.F.F. (2024).The land transition in Benin: between resilience and adaptation of traditional land tenure in urban, peri-urban and rural spaces. The case of the communes of Porto-Novo, Avrankou and Bonou in South Benin. Thesis published by Hal Open Science. University of Western Brittany, France. Pg. 311.
108. Dahandé,T. (2024). Benin: Land management is giving the Talon regime a hard time. 25 March 2024.The new stand.
109. General Secretariat of the Government (2024). Decree No. 2024-917 of 24 April 2024. https://sgg.gouv.bj/doc/decret-2024-917/# (Accessed 28 June 2024).
110. Category A: low risk, Category B: medium risk and category C: high risk.
111. Agbon, S.B. (2024). Building permit: process, validity and duties of the beneficiary. 25 March 2024. Benin Intelligent.
112. General Secretariat of the Government (2023). Decree No. 2023-617 of 6 December 2023. https://sgg.gouv.bj/doc/decret-2023-617/ (Accessed 28 June 2024).
113. See footnote 110.
114.  See footnote 112. Pg. 7-8.
115. Videoconference interview with Raymond Aboki, Director of Real Estate Development and Promotion, SImAU, 5 July 2024, Dakar, Senegal.
116. See footnote 115.