Western Sahara is a former Spanish colony situated in the Maghreb desert region – with Morocco to the north-east, Mauritania to the south, Algeria to the east and the North Atlantic Ocean to the west. The official languages are French, Arabic, Berber and Spanish.³

The United Nations (UN) recognises Western Sahara as a non self-governing territory which remains disputed between Morocco and the indigenous Sahrawi people.⁴ Morocco occupies 85% of Western Sahara while the Polisario Front, a national liberation movement, exercises control over the remaining part as a result of guerrilla warfare. After Spain withdrew from Western Sahara in 1976, the Polisario Front declared themselves a sovereign republic and established the official name Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR). The SADR remains a recognised member of the African Union (AU) and is officially acknowledged by many countries.⁵ A heavily fortified buffer strip (known as the Berm) with landmines still separates the western region controlled by Morocco from the Polisario Front-controlled eastern region of Western Sahara. In November 2020 Polisario Front troops breached the 30-year-old ceasefire after Moroccan troops entered the UN-patrolled buffer zone, sparking a renewed conflict.⁶

Western Sahara is sparsely populated and spans 266 km2 with an estimated population of 591 833 people in August 2024,making up 0.01% of the world’s population.⁷ Moroccan settlers make up approximately 300 000 of the population.⁸ The population density is low, with only two people per km2, and 96.6% of the population is urban.⁹ The average annual rate of urbanisation in Western Sahara during the period 2015-2020 was estimated at 2.87%.¹⁰

Western Sahara’s largest city is Laayoune, followed by Dakhla (75 000 people), Boujdour (42 651 people),Daoura (900 people), Foum el Oued (450 people) and Smara (57 000 people).¹¹ Laayoune is situated at the northern tip of Western Sahara with an estimated 258 081 inhabitants in 2024, growing at an estimate rate of 1.71% annually.¹² Approximately 40% ofWestern Sahara’s population lives in Laayoune.¹³ The Moroccan occupation of the west of Western Sahara, which includes the coast, has pushed the Sahrawi population further inland, into less hospitable areas more affected by climate change issues. Part of Algeria’s support to the Polisario Front and the Sahrawi people remains through the establishment of multiple refugee camps in and around the Tindouf region of Algeria.¹⁴ Currently, more than 90 000 refugees in Sahrawi camps in Algeria depend on United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) assistance aimed to increase access to basic services, improve education quality and increase student retention through teacher support.¹⁵

Furthermore, climate change still remains an issue for Western Sahara and has continued to worsen the poor living conditions for the displaced and refugee Sahrawi population in isolated refugee camps. Water scarcity remains a major problem in the country, and climate change is putting additional stress on the limited water resources. Extreme heat, dust storms and flash floods have caused damage to homes, health services and food stores over the years which is still not resolved causing important infrastructure and services to be impacted. Fragile conditions remain as food security and water is threatened for the refugee population including lack of adequate housing.

The United Nations Mission for the Referendum inWestern Sahara (MINURSO) was established in 1991 as a peace-keeping mission to manage the ceasefire and enable Sahrawi people to choose between integration and independence. A 2023 report by MINURSO has indicated that the situation in Western Sahara has deteriorated with civilian casualties and creates a challenge for the UN, with interest in extending assistance until October 2024.^{16, 17} The UN has called for international assistance to improve food security in refugee camps in Algeria given the dire need.

The conflict in Western Sahara has also greatly impacted the economic activities taking place there. The fight over valuable resources such as renewable energy and water is fuelling the ongoing conflict. Worth millions of dollars, the fisheries and phosphates industries are a particular area of contention.¹⁸ Given that the territory is rich in phosphates, phosphate mining remains one of the dominant trades inWestern Sahara with US$406 million exported in 2023, up from US$341 million in 2022 with the price per tonne dropping from US$277 in 2022 to US$255 in 2023.¹⁹ The coastal location is also strategic in terms of the economy, as it supports a strong fisheries industry inWestern Sahara with both professional fishermen and locals going out into the northern Atlantic to fish.

The region is challenged by low rainfall, low production and land degradation. Aridity still limits the economic activities and outputs from sedentary agriculture, leading to the need for increased food imports. The climate not being conducive for food production, pastoral nomadism is a common practice inWestern Sahara as a means of offsetting the reduced food production.²⁰ Morocco continues to hold their control of the bulk of the territory and carry out activities related to food security, but also social development, infrastructure development and even employment. Since 2019, for instance, there have been plans announced to build the Dakhla Atlantic Port (currently under construction with expected completion 2028) and other socioeconomic projects to the value of Dhs259 million (US$26.1 million) in the Laayoune province.²¹ The construction of Morocco’s largest bridge was launched in July 2024 which is a US$381 million investment in Laayoune.²² This is a 1 648 meter highway which is expected to take 40 months to complete and forms part of theTiznit-Dakhla highway project.

Western Sahara does not have a central bank. However, there are a number of banks with branches in Western Sahara such as Banque Populaire, Société Générale, Al Barid Bank, Crédit du Maroc, Banque Marocaine du Commerce Extérieur (BMCE), Banque CIH, Banque Credit Agricole du Maroc, Banque Du Maroc, Banque Commerciale du Maroc (BCM),Umnia Bank, Attijariwafa Bank.^{23, 24} While most banks are operated by Moroccan firms, Western Sahara also has four French banks.

Extensive desktop research has found no credible data on the number of outstanding residential mortgages nor their total value, given that the sector is very young due to the current conflict. There is also a data gap on mortgage terms, including the prevailing mortgage tenor, the interest rate, the number of non-performing mortgage loans and the general loan to value ratio (LTV) in the territory.

The rental price of a one-bedroom apartment in the city centre is Dhs3 308 (US$331) and outside the city centre is Dhs1 654 (US$165) whereas a 3-bedroom apartment inside the city centre is Dhs6 615 (US$662) and outside the city is Dhs2 756 (US$276).²⁵

Comparing the rentals to average monthly income indicates that housing affordability is a serious issue in the country. The average net monthly salary (after tax) was cited as Dhs2 179 (US$221). However, the average price per square meter to buy an apartment in the city centre is estimated at Dhs6 102 (US$617.76), which is much higher than the average monthly salary.²⁶

Housing in Western Sahara is characterised by a mix of the Moroccan modern houses, slums and apartments. In Smara, 46.5% were owners and 33.5% tenants as of 2013.²⁷ Houses usually have a unique look, built with clay brick or stones, mortar, plaster and paint in more modern buildings. Traditional mud floors have been replaced by cement and tiles.²⁸ Colours are pale to reflect sun rays. Some displaced Sahrawis live in tents and mud huts in camps.²⁹

Several housing projects have been implemented since the 1980s. For instance, some emergency programs were led since 1976 to assist 9 815 households living in slums in Laayoune and 6 792 in Dakhla. The goal was to re-house impoverished households living in camps and slums. More recently, the Moroccan government has prioritised housing development in occupied Western Sahara recognising housing as a lever for economic and social development, with a plan to build 800 000 housing units by 2021.³⁰ Yet, it is uncertain if this has been done. On the whole, formal housing delivery has declined since the renewal of the conflict in 2020.

Infrastructure development has also been a key concern inWestern Sahara given lack of basic sanitation following the displacement of Sahrawis. Strides have been made to address this by improving access to social and basic services. From 1975 to 2005, some 9 457km of roads were improved by the Moroccan government from a mere 70km.³¹ This indicates the level of access opened throughout the land. In recent years, the road constructed between Laayoune and Agadir, a city in Morocco, has opened up trade routes between port and city and enabled growth in the sector.³²

There are six power stations in Moroccan-occupied Western Sahara. Exploiting renewable energy in occupied Western Sahara has become a focus of Morocco, which aims to extract 52% of energy from renewable resources such as wind, solar and hydropower. Operational wind farms belong to the Moroccan King’s company and the IntegratedWind Energy Programme.³³ There are also two solar plants. In the liberated territory, energy is sourced from solar energy projects largely funded by the Spanish government, with room for expansion of wind power. Electricity access in refugee camps in Algeria is a mix of conventional (Algeria connecting Tindouf to their grid) and renewable energy sources. Renewable energy seems to be the most sustainable in remote desert environments and most households have one solar panel.³⁴

Water in occupied Western Sahara is largely accessed through ground water extraction and a few desalination and waste water treatment plants. Access to water in liberated territory relies mainly on wells and is provided by trucks and stored in tanks since rainfall is scarce and there is no permanent water body. The Association Secours Sahraoui is implementing the Water for All project which drilled 30 wells supporting up to 100 000 people, powered by solar and wind energy. Access to water in camps remains a challenge and supply is delivered via pipes and trucks.³⁵

Cement is produced in Western Sahara, in the following five factories: Heidelbergcement, Cimenteries Marocaines du Sud (CIMSUD), Ciments du Maroc, CEMOS Ciment, Holcim LTD. Of the 896 000 tons of cement being produced by Heidelberg Materials AG, two-thirds were being used within Western Sahara and one third exported to Morocco.³⁶

Moroccans only permit tents in deserts. Since the conflict, land has been highly contested, with 12 280 000 hectares of land taken by Morocco through land confiscation and grabbing. For example, Sahrawis were forced to sign contracts or cede their land tenure rights to the Moroccan National Agency for Land Conservation, Cadaster and Cartography in favour of the Moroccan Agency for Sustainable Energy (MASEN) for the planned PV II solar-power generation project.³⁷ Sahrawis are contesting dispossession and claiming their right to land but are faced with resistance from Moroccan authorities, resulting in Sahrawi homes being demolished.³⁸

Data on price points and the cost of construction is not available. There is no data on the price of land, the prices of newly-developed units; nor is there any data on the prices of units sold in the resale market. The only data found is from Numbeo, as cited above, which indicates the high acquisition cost for property

The Moroccan government has been involved in providing infrastructure and housing in the occupied territory since 1975, as highlighted in the sections above, while there has been minimal progress and attention to housing in liberated territory. Nevertheless, in 2021 the Office of the Prime Minister for the Government of the SADR, with the help of international experts, prepared an Indicative Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) for the territory of Western Sahara, comprising both the Occupied Territory west and north of the Berm, and the Liberated Territory east and south of the Berm.

Quite critical of Morocco’s use of natural resources, the INDC summarises the conditions in the country and presents an overview for climate change mitigation and adaptation in the country.³⁹ In terms of housing and infrastructure, the INDC notes that urgent action is needed to improve infrastructure and upgrade housing from tents and mud bricks, to more durable, low carbon footprint materials. The INDC also calls for the application of building standards to maximise passive cooling. For dealing with water scarcity, adaptation measures based on water harvesting, storage and efficiency are urgently needed including the construction of additional reservoirs and systems for channelling and capturing runoff and smallscale domestic water harvesting and groundwater abstraction systems.⁴⁰ However, these actions are dependent on resolution of the conflict as well as international support and funding

Western Sahara is resource rich and there remains an opportunity for renewable energy initiatives. The Moroccan government has capitalised on the Western Sahara’s renewable energy potential by building three large wind farms (with five more in the pipeline) and two solar farms (with one more planned).⁴¹ As of 2021, Morocco’s total solar capacity was 14.85% produced in Western Sahara with the aim of reaching close to 32.64% in 2030.⁴² The aim is for 47.2% of Morocco’s wind energy to be produced in Western Sahara by 2030.⁴³

Both occupied and liberated Western Sahara are attracting interest from foreign companies given their natural resource base and opportunity for renewable energy, specifically solar and wind energy. The construction of the port in Dakhla will create a hub for international trade and boost the local economy. For example, there are a number of registered companies operating in Western Sahara involved in phosphate production and export, gas exploration, renewable energy (wind parks), utilities, desalination, etc. Some of the international companies involved in renewable energy include Siemens, Enel SpA, Voltalia SA, General Electric Company etc.

Most of these companies have agreements with the government of Morocco as opposed to local Saharawi people. In August 2023, the Saharawi government announced that the signature of an agreement for mineral exploration with the Australian company Nomad Exploration PTY Ltd. This is one of five permits that the Saharawis have issued.

Housing and housing finance data in Western Sahara remains largely unavailable. While information is historically correct, there is no update. Western Sahara’s continued disputed sovereignty as a state has continued to undermine the legitimacy of its government, thus undermining its capacity too. Systems and state entities that champion data collection, analysis, management and reporting are still not in place. For example, there is no official bureau of statistics in the territory.

Given the limitation on the availability of data, some of the data shared in this year’s profile is the same data obtained previously. The INDC (2021) released by the Office of the President provides significant recent information of the country’s resources and infrastructure in support of housing.

There are no new housing projects that have been reported on online. Website searches show a development a year old with a 3-bedroom unit for sale for Dhs1 950 000 (US$) in Laayoune, occupied Western Sahara. The unit is 155 square meters with 3 rooms and 1 bathroom.⁴⁶

Most Sahrawis live in refugee camps in Algeria. Details of the number of refuges is unknown and as mentioned above, conditions are poor with limited access to basic services and food scarcity

Western Sahara Resource Watch: https://wsrw.org/en
Sahara Social: http://www.sahara-social.com/Default.aspx?tabid=91
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic: https://www.spsrasd.info/
Sahara Development: http://www.sahara-developpement.com/
MINURSO: https://minurso.unmissions.org

1. United Nations (2023).Taking up Question of Western Sahara, Some Speakers in Special Decolonization Committee Call for Urgent Self-Determination Referendum, Voice Concern over Human Rights Abuses.
   13 June 2023. https://press.un.org/en/2023/gacol3370.doc.htm (Accessed 21 August 2024).
2. World Food Programme (2024).WFP and EU mark first year of multi-annual partnership in support of Sahrawi Refugees. 31 July 2024. https://reliefweb.int/report/algeria/wfp-and-eu-mark-first-year-multi-annualpartnership-support-sahrawi-refugees (Accessed 21 August 2024).
3. Moody’s Analytics Economic Indicators (2024).Western Sahara – Economic Indicators. https://www.economy.com/western-sahara/indicators (Accessed 9 August 2024).
4. United Nations (2023).Western Sahara. https://www.un.org/dppa/decolonization/en/nsgt/western-sahara
   (Accessed 22 September 2023).
5. Moody’s Analytics Economic Indicators (2023).Western Sahara – Economic Indicators.
6. IISS. (2021).The end of the ceasefire inWestern Sahara. November 2021.
   https://www.iiss.org/publications/strategic-comments/2021/the-end-of-the-ceasefire-in-western-sahara (Accessed 22 September 2023).
7. Worldometer (2023).Western Sahara Population. https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/westernsahara-population/ (Accessed 28 August 2023).
8. The Sahrawi Association in the United States of America (SAUSA) and Housing and Land Rights Network – Habitat International Coalition (2022). Human Rights Related to Habitat (Land, Housing, Population Transfer, Natural Resources) in Moroccan-occupiedWestern Sahara. 22 February 2022.
   https://www.hlrn.org/img/documents/WSUSA-HIC-HLRN_Morocco_UPR.pdf (Accessed 15 September 2023). Pg. 6.
9. Worldometer (2024).Western Sahara Population.
10. Moody’s Analytics Economic Indicators (2023).Western Sahara – Economic Indicators.
11. Geonames. Western Sahara. https://www.geonames.org/EH/largest-cities-in-western-sahara.html (Accessed 15 September 2023).
12. World Population Review (2024). Laayoune Population 2024. https://worldpopulationreview.com/worldcities/laayoune-population (Accessed 9 August 2024).
13. Moody’s Analytics Economic Indicators (2023).Western Sahara – Economic Indicators.
14. ReliefWeb (2018). Forgotten refugee crisis: Sahrawi refugees in Algeria.
    https://reliefweb.int/report/algeria/forgotten-refugee-crisis-sahrawi-refugees-algeria (Accessed 21 September
    2022).
15. The UN Refugee Agency (2023). Critical Funding Needs in the Middle East and North Africa. 
    https://reporting.unhcr.org/mena-critical-funding-needs-2023 (Accessed 9 August 2024).
16. United Nations Security Council (2023). Situation ConcerningWestern Sahara – Report of the Secretary
    General.3 October 2023. https://minurso.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/s-2023-729_-_sg_report_on_minurso_-_english.pdf (Accessed 17 September 2023). Pg. 16.
17. Ibid.
18. LSE International Development (2021). Climate change and the important role it plays in the Western Sahara conflict. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/internationaldevelopment/2021/03/23/climate-change-and-the-important-roleit-plays-in-the-western-sahara-conflict/ (Accessed 21 September 2022).
19. Western Sahara Resource Watch (2023). P for Plunder: Morocco’s exports of phosphates from occupied Western Sahara. https://vest-sahara.s3.amazonaws.com/wsrw/feature-images/File/1827/665842aadb54d_P-forPlunder-2024_ENG_web.pdf (Accessed 9 August 2024).
20.  Sahara Development.Agriculture & Framing. http://www.sahara-developpement.com/Western-Sahara/
    AgricultureEtElevage–117.aspx (Accessed 22 September 2023).
21. Guessous, H. (2019). Morocco Launches Major Development Projects in Laayoune.
    https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2019/11/286107/morocco-launches-major-development-projects-inlaayoune-province (Accessed 29 August 2023).
22. Hespress English (2024). Laayoune sees construction of Morocco’s longest bridge, at a 1.4 billion dirham cost.
    https://en.hespress.com/88686-laayoune-sees-construction-of-moroccos-longest-bridge-at-a-1-4-billiondirham-cost.html (Accessed 10 August 2024).
23. Western Sahara ResourceWatch (2023). SRI Update. 17 September 2023. https://wsrw.org/en/news/sri-news (Accessed 28 August 2023).
24.  Near Place (2022). Banks in Western Sahara. http://eh.near-place.com/bank (Accessed 28 August 2023).
25. Numbeo (2024). Cost of Living inWestern Sahara. https://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/country_result.jsp?country=Western+Sahara&displayCurrency=MAD (Accessed 9 August 2024).
26. Ibid.
27.  Sahara Social. (2024). Housing. http://www.sahara-social.com/en/Home/Housing/Housing.aspx (Accessed 21 – August 2024).
28. Tyman, J. (2023). JohnTyman’s Cultures in Context Series – Egypt and the Sahara. http://www.johntyman.com/sahara/25.html (Accessed 16 September 2023).
29. Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. (2021). First Indicative National Determined Contribution. November 2021. https://www.spsrasd.info/news/sites/default/files/documents/sadr_ndc_draft_final_09nov21.pdf (Accessed 15 September 2023).
30. Alouazen, S. (2021). Minister of Housing: Southern Provinces are Priority in 2021. 19 January 2021. Morocco
    World News. https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2021/01/332435/minister-of-housing-southernprovinces-are-priority-in-2021 (Accessed 17 September 2023).
31. Sahara Development (2024). Road Network. http://www.sahara-developpement.com/WesternSahara/RoadNetwork–108.aspx (Accessed 16 September 2023).
32. Aamari, O. (2022).Tiznit-Dakhla Highway onTrack to be Completed thisYear. 8 February 2022. Morocco
    World News. https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2022/02/346961/tiznit-dakhla-highway-on-track-to-becompleted-this-year (Accessed 22 September 2023).
33. Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (2021). First Indicative National Determined Contribution. November
    2021. Pg. 14.
34. Ibid. Pg. 16.
35. Ibid. Pg. 27.
36. Western Sahara ResourceWatch (2023). Massive increase for Heidelberg Materials in occupiedWestern
    Sahara. 16 May 2023. https://wsrw.org/en/news/massive-increase-for-heidelberg-materials-in-occupiedwestern-sahara (Accessed 28 August 2023).
37. The Sahrawi Association in the United States of America (SAUSA) and Housing and Land Rights Network –
    Habitat International Coalition. (2022). Human Rights Related to Habitat (Land, Housing, Population Transfer,
    Natural Resources) in Moroccan-occupiedWestern Sahara. 22 February 2022.
    https://www.hlrn.org/img/documents/WSUSA-HIC-HLRN_Morocco_UPR.pdf (Accessed 15 September 2023).
38. Ibid.
39. Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. (2021). First Indicative National Determined Contribution. November 2021. Pg. 2.
40. Ibid. Pg. 27.
41. Western Sahara Resource Watch (2022). Dirty green energy on occupied land. 14 April 2022.
42. Western Sahara Resource Watch (2021). Greenwashing Occupation. Pg. 13.
43. Ibid. Pg. 3.
44. Western Sahara Resource Watch (2023). SRI Update. 17 September 2023. https://wsrw.org/en/news/srinews (Accessed 31 August 2023).
45. Western Sahara Resource Watch (2023).Western Sahara government granted mineral exploration licence.
    10 August 2023. https://wsrw.org/en/news/western-sahara-government-granted-mining-exploration-licence
    (Accessed 30 August 2023).
46. Mubawab (2024). https://www.mubawab.ma/en (Accessed 15 August 2024)